1. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, McDowell MA, Tabak CJ, Flegal KM. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. JAMA 295:1549-1555, 2006.

2. Finkelstein EA, Ruhm CJ, Kosa KM. Economic causes and consequences of obesity. Annu Rev Public Health 26:239-257, 2005.

3. Young RC, Gibbs J, Antin J, Holt J, Smith GP. Absence of satiety during sham feeding in the rat. J Comp Physiol Psychol 87:795-800, 1974.

4. Liebling DS, Eisner JD, Gibbs J, Smith GP. Intestinal satiety in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 89:955-965, 1975.

5. Prechtl JC, Powley TL. The fiber composition of the abdominal vagus of the rat. Anat Embyol 181:101-115, 1990.

6. Berthoud HR, Powley TL. Vagal afferent innervation of the rat fundic stomach: morphological characterization of the gastric tension receptor. J Comp Neurol 319:261-276, 1992.

7. Eisen S, Davis JD, Rauhofer E, Smith GP. Gastric negative feedback produced by volume and nutrient during a meal in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Comp Physiol 281:R1201-R1214, 2001.

8. Phillips RJ, Powley TL. Gastric volume rather than nutrient content inhibits food intake. Am J Physiol 271:R766-R769, 1996.

9. Phillips RJ, Powley TL. Gastric volume detection after selective vagotomies in rats. Am J Physiol 274:R1626-R1638, 1998.

10. Seeley RJ, Kaplan JM, Grill HJ. Effect of occluding the pylorus on intraoral intake: a test of the gastric hypothesis of meal termination. Physiol Behav 58:245-249, 1995.

11. Rauhofer EA, Smith GP, Gibbs J. Acute blockade of gastric emptying and meal size in rats. Physiol Behav 54:881-884, 1993.

12. Merali Z, McIntosh J, Anisman H. Role of bombesin-related peptides in the control of food intake. Neuropeptides 33:376-386, 1999.

13. Liddle RA. Cholecystokinin cells. Annu Rev Physiol 59:221-242, 1997.

14. Orskov C, Rabenhoj L, Wettergren A, Kofod H, Holst JJ. Tissue and plasma concentrations of amidated and glycine-extended glucagon-like peptide I in humans. Diabetes 43:535-539, 1994.

15. Adrian TE, Ferri GL, Bacarese-Hamilton AJ, Fuessl HS, Polak JM, Bloom SR. Human distribution and release of a putative new gut hormone, peptide YY. Gastroenterology 89:1070-1077, 1985.

16. Liu M, Doi T, Tso P. Regulation of intestinal and hypothalamic apolipoprotein A-IV. Exp Biol Med 228:1181-1189, 2003.

17. Liddle RA, Green GM, Conrad CK, Williams JA. Proteins but not amino acids, carbohydrates, or fats stimulate cholecystokinin release in the rat. Am J Physiol 251:G243-G248, 1986.

18. Buchan AMJ. Nutrient tasting and signaling mechanisms in the gut III. Endocrine cell recognition of luminal nutrients. Am J Physiol 277:G1103-G1107, 1999.

19. Orr J, Davy B. Dietary influences on peripheral hormones regulating energy intake: potential applications for weight management. J Am Diet Assoc 105:1115-1124, 2005.

20. Gibbs J, Young RC, Smith GP. Cholecystokinin decreases food intake in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 84:488-495, 1973.

21. Kissileff HR, Pi-Sunyer FX, Thornton J, Smith GP. C-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin decreases food intake in man. Am J Clin Nutr 34:154-160, 1981.

22. Batterham RL, Cowley MA, Small CJ, Herzog H, Cohen MA, Dakin CL, Wren AM, Brynes AE, Low MJ, Ghatei MA, Cone RD, Bloom SR. Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature 418:650-654, 2002.

23. Fujimoto K, Machidori H, Iwakiri R, Yamamoto K, Fujisaki J, Sakata T, Tso P. Effect of intravenous administration of apolipoprotein A-IV on patterns of feeding, drinking and ambulatory activity of rats. Brain Res 608:233-237, 1993.

24. Chelikani PK, Haver AC, Reidelberger RD. Intravenous infusion of peptide YY(3-36) potently inhibits food intake in rats. Endocrinology 146:879-888, 2005.

25. Ritter RC. Gastrointestinal mechanisms of satiation for food. Physiol Behav 81:249-273, 2004.

26. Chaudhri O, Small C, Bloom S. Gastrointestinal hormones regulating appetite. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1187-1209, 2006.

27. Tschop M, Castaneda TR, Joost HG, Thone-Reineke C, Ortmann S, Klaus S, Hagan MM, Chandler PC, Oswald KD, Benoit SC, Seeley RJ, Kinzig KP, Moran TH, Beck-Sickinger AG, Koglin N, Rodgers RJ, Blundell JE, Ishii Y, Beattie AH, Holch P, Allison DB, Raun K, Madsen K, Wulff BS, Stidsen CE, Birringer M, Kreuzer OJ, Schindler M, Arndt K, Rudolf K, Mark M, Deng XY, Whitcomb DC, Halem H, Taylor J, Dong J, Datta R, Culler M, Craney S, Flora D, Smiley D, Heiman ML. Physiology: does gut hormone PYY3-36 decrease food intake in rodents? Nature 430:165-166, 2004.

28. Moran TH. Gut peptide signaling in the controls of food intake. Obesity 14:250S-253S, 2006.

29. Gibbs J, Smith GP. Gut peptides and food in the gut produce similar satiety effects. Peptides 3:553-557, 1982.

30. Antin J, Gibbs J, Holt J, Young RC, Smith GP. Cholecystokinin elicits the complete behavioral sequence of satiety in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 89:784-790, 1975.

31. Martin CF, Gibbs J. Bombesin elicits satiety in sham feeding rats. Peptides 1:131-134, 1980.

32. Moran TH, Bi S. Hyperphagia and obesity in OLETF rats lacking CCK-1 receptors. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1211-1218, 2006.

33. Batterham RL, Heffron H, Kapoor S, Chivers JE, Chandarana K, Herzog H, LeRoux CW, Thomas EL, Bell JD, Withers DJ. Critical role for peptide YY in protein-mediated satiation and body-weight regulation. Cell Metab 4:223-233, 2006.

34. Scrocchi LA, Drucker DJ. Effects of aging and a high fat diet on body weight and glucose tolerance in glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor -/- mice. Endocrinology 139:3127-3132, 1998.

35. Lukinius A, Wilander E, Westermark GT, Engstrom U, Westermark P. Co-localization of islet amyloid polypeptide and insulin in the B cell secretory granules of the human pancreatic islets. Diabetologia 32:240-244, 1989.

36. Butler PC, Chou J, Carter WB, Wang YN, Bu BH, Chang D, Chang JK, Rizza RA. Effects of meal ingestion on plasma amylin concentration in NIDDM and nondiabetic humans. Diabetes 39:752-756, 1990.

37. Lutz TA, Geary N, Szabady MM, Del Prete E, Scharrer E. Amylin decreases meal size in rats. Physiol Behav 58:1197-1202, 1995.

38. Morley JE, Flood JF. Amylin decreases food intake in mice. Peptides 12:865-869, 1991.

39. Lutz TA, Del Prete E, Scharrer E. Reduction of food intake in rats by intraperitoneal injection of low doses of amylin. Physiol Behav 55:891-895, 1994.

40. Reidelberger RD, Haver AC, Arnelo U, Smith DD, Schaffert CS, Permert J. Amylin receptor blockade stimulates food intake in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 287:R568-R574, 2004.

41. de Jong A, Strubbe JH, Steffens AB. Hypothalamic influence on insulin and glucagon release in the rat. Am J Physiol 233:E380-E388, 1977.

42. Langhans W, Pantel K, Muller-Schell W, Eggenberger E, Scharrer E. Hepatic handline of pancreatic glucagon and glucose during meals in rats. Am J Physiol 247:R827-R832, 1984.

43. LeSauter J, Geary N. Hepatic portal glucagon infusion decreases spontaneous meal size in rats. Am J Physiol 261:R154-R161, 1991.

44. LeSauter J, Noh U, Geary N. Hepatic portal infusion of glucagon antibodies increases spontaneous meal size in rats. Am J Physiol 261:R162-R165, 1991.

45. Geary N, Kissileff HR, Pi-Sunyer FX, Hinton V. Individual, but not simultaneous, glucagon and cholecystokinin infusions inhibit feeding in men. Am J Physiol 262:R975-R980, 1992.

46. Langhans W, Zeiger U, Scharrer E, Geary N. Stimulation of feeding in rats by intraperitoneal injection of antibodies to glucagon. Science 218:894-896, 1982.

47. Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, Nakazato M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K. Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 402:656-660, 1999.

48. Tschop M, Smiley DL, Heiman ML. Ghrelin induces adiposity in rodents. Nature 407:908-913, 2000.

49. Wren AM, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, Brynes AE, Frost GS, Murphy KG, Dhillo WS, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:5992, 2001.

50. Wren AM, Small CJ, Abbott CR, Dhillo WS, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, Batterham RL, Taheri S, Stanley SA, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. Ghrelin causes hyperphagia and obesity in rats. Diabetes 50:2540-2547, 2001.

51. Druce MR, Wren AM, Park AJ, Milton JE, Patterson M, Frost G, Ghatei MA, Small C, Bloom SR. Ghrelin increases food intake in obese as well as lean subjects. Int J Obes 29:1130-1136, 2005.

52. Asakawa A, Inui A, Kaga T, Katsuura G, Fujimiya M, Fujino MA, Kasuga M. Antagonism of ghrelin receptor reduces food intake and body weight gain in mice. Gut 52:947-952, 2003.

53. Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS, Schmidova K, Wisse BE, Weigle DS. A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes 50:1714-1719, 2001.

54. Tschop M, Wawarta R, Riepl RL, Friedrich S, Bidlingmaier M, Landgraf R, Folwaczny C. Post-prandial decrease of circulating human ghrelin levels. J Endocrinol Invest 24:RC19-RC21, 2001.

55. Crowley WR, Ramoz G, Keefe KA, Torto R, Kalra SP, Hanson GR. Differential effects of methamphetamine on expression of neuropeptide Y mRNA in hypothalamus and on serum leptin and ghrelin concentrations in ad libitum-fed and schedule-fed rats. Neuroscience 132:167-173, 2005.

56. Drazen DL, Vahl TP, D’Alessio DA, Seeley RJ, Woods SC. Effects of a fixed meal pattern on ghrelin secretion: evidence for a learned response independent of nutrient status. Endocrinology 147:23-30, 2006.

57. Cummings DE, Frayo RS, Marmonier C, Aubert R, Chapelot D. Plasma ghrelin levels and hunger scores in humans initiating meals voluntarily without time- and food-related cues. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 287:E297-E304, 2004.

58. Murakami N, Hayashida T, Kuroiwa T, Nakahara K, Ida T, Mondal MS, Nakazato M, Kojima M, Kangawa K. Role for central ghrelin in food intake and secretion profile of stomach ghrelin in rats. J Endocrinol 174:283-288, 2002

59. Sanchez J, Oliver P, Pico C, Palou A. Diurnal rhythms of leptin and ghrelin in the systemic circulation and in the gastric mucosa are related to food intake in rats. Pflugers Arch 448:500-506, 2004.

60. Williams DL, Cummings DE, Grill HJ, Kaplan JM. Meal-related ghrelin suppression requires postgastric feedback. Endocrinology 144:2765-2767, 2003.

61. Sanchez J, Oliver P, Palou A, Pico C. The inhibition of gastric ghrelin production by food intake in rats is dependent on the type of macronutrient. Endocrinology 145:5049-5055, 2004.

62. Al Awar R, Obeid O, Hwalla N, Azar S. Postprandial acylated ghrelin status following fat and protein manipulation of meals in healthy young women. Clin Sci 109:405-411, 2005.

63. Tannous dit El Khoury D, Obeid O, Azar ST, Hwalla N. Variations in postprandial ghrelin status following ingestion of high-carbohydrate, high-fat, and high-protein meals in males. Ann Nutr Metab 50:260-269, 2006.

64. Murray CD, le Roux CW, Gouveia C, Bassett P, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR, Emmanuel AV, Gabe SM. The effect of different macronutrient infusions on appetite, ghrelin and peptide YY in parenterally fed patients. Clin Nutr 25:626-633, 2006.

65. Overduin J, Frayo RS, Grill HJ, Kaplan JM, Cummings DE. Role of the duodenum and macronutrient type in ghrelin regulation. Endocrinology 146:845-850, 2005.

66. Wortley KE, Anderson KD, Garcia K, Murray JD, Malinova L, Liu R, Moncrieffe M, Thabet K, Cox HJ, Yancopoulos GD, Wiegand SJ, Sleeman MW. Genetic deletion of ghrelin does not decrease food intake but influences metabolic fuel preference. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:8227-8232, 2004.

67. De Smet B, Depoortere I, Moechars D, Swennen Q, Moreaux B, Cryns K, Tack J, Buyse J, Coulie B, Peeters TL. Energy homeostasis and gastric emptying in ghrelin knockout mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 316:431-439, 2006.

68. Zigman JM, Nakano Y, Coppari R, Balthasar N, Marcus JN, Lee CE, Jones JE, Deysher AE, Waxman AR, White RD, Williams TD, Lachey JL, Seeley RJ, Lowell BB, Elmquist JK. Mice lacking ghrelin receptors resist the development of diet-induced obesity. J Clin Invest 115:3564-3572, 2005.

69. Zhang JV, Ren PG, Avsian-Kretchmer O, Luo CW, Rauch R, Klein C, Hsueh AJ. Obestatin, a peptide encoded by the ghrelin gene, opposes ghrelin’s effects on food intake. Science 310:996-999, 2005.

70. Lagaud GJ, Young A, Acena A, Morton MF, Barrett TD, Shankley NP. Obestatin reduces food intake and suppresses body weight gain in rodents. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 357:264-269, 2007.

71. Lauwers E, Landuyt B, Arckens L, Schoofs L, Luyten W. Obestatin does not activated orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR39. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 351:21-25, 2006.

72. Gourcerol G, Tache Y. Obestatin – a ghrelin-associated peptide that does not hold its promise to suppress food intake and motility. Neurogastroenterol Motil 19:161-165, 2007.

73. Mayer J. Regulation of energy intake and the body weight: the glucostatic theory and the lipostatic hypothesis. Ann NY Acad Sci 63:15-43, 1955.

74. Nishizawa Y, Bray GA. Evidence for a circulating ergostatic factor: studies on parabiotic rats. Am J Physiol 239:R344-R351, 1980.

75. Benoit SC, Clegg DJ, Seeley RJ, Woods SC. Insulin and leptin as adiposity signals. Recent Prog Horm Res 59:267-285, 2004.

76. Baskin DG, Figlewicz Latteman D, Seeley RJ, Woods SC, Porte D Jr, Schwartz MW. Insulin and leptin: dual adiposity signals to the brain for the regulation of food intake and body weight. Brain Res 848:114-123, 1999.

77. Havrankova J, Schmechel D, Roth J, Brownstein M. Identification of insulin in rat brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75:5737-5741, 1978.

78. Corp ES, Woods SC, Porte D Jr, Dorsa DM, Figlewicz DP, Baskin DG. Localization of 125I-insulin binding sites in the rat hypothalamus by quantitative autoradiography. Neurosci Lett 70:17-22, 1986.

79. Schwartz MW, Seeley RJ, Campfield LA, Burn P, Baskin DG. Identification of targets of leptin action in rat hypothalamus. J Clin Invest 98:1101-1106, 1996.

80. Baskin DG, Hahn TM, Schwartz MW. Leptin sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus. Horm Metab Res 31:345-350, 1999.

81. Woods SC, Lotter EC, McKay LD, Porte D Jr. Chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of insulin reduces food intake and body weight of baboons. Nature 282:503-505, 1979.

82. Air EL, Benoit SC, Blake Smith KA, Clegg DJ, Woods SC. Acute third ventricular administration of insulin decreases food intake in two paradigms. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 72:423-429, 2002.

83. Air EL, Benoit SC, Clegg DJ, Seeley RJ, Woods SC. Insulin and leptin combine additively to reduce food intake in rats. Endocrinology 143:2449-1452, 2002.

84. Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Guisez Y, Devos R, Burn P. Recombinant mouse OB protein: evidence for a peripheral signal linking adiposity and central neural networks. Science 269:546-549, 1995.

85. McGowan MK, Andrews KM, Grossman SP. Chronic intrahypothalamic infusions of insulin or insulin antibodies alter body weight and food intake in the rat. Physiol Behav 51:753-766, 1992.

86. Strubbe JH, Mein CG. Increased feeding in response to bilateral injection of insulin antibodies in the VMH. Physiol Behav 19:309-313, 1977.

87. Coleman DL. Obese and diabetes: two mutant genes causing diabetes-obesity syndromes in mice. Diabetologia 14:141-148, 1978.

88. Zucker LM, Zucker TF. Fatty, a new mutation in the rat. J Hered 52:275-278, 1961

89. Chua SC, Chung WK, Wu-Peng XS, Zhang Y, Liu SM, Tartaglia L, Leibel RL. Phenotypes of mouse diabetes and rat fatty due to mutations in the OB (leptin) receptor. Science 271:994-996, 1996.

90. Bruning JC, Gautam D, Burks DJ, Gillette J, Schubert M, Orban PC, Klein R, Krone W, Muller-Wieland D, Kahn CR. Role of brain insulin receptor in control of body weight and reproduction. Science 289:2122-2125, 2000.

91. Lin X, Taguchi A, Park S, Kushner JA, Li F, Li Y, White MF. Dysregulation of insulin receptor substrate 2 in beta cells and brain causes obesity and diabetes. J Clin Invest 114:908-916, 2004.

92. Montague CT, Farooqi IS, Whitehead JP, Soos MA, Rau H, Wareham NJ, Sewter CP, Digby JE, Mohammed SN, Hurst JA, Cheetham CH, Earley AR, Barnett AH, Prius JB, O’Rahilly S. Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature 387:903-908, 1997.

93. Farooqi IS, Wangensteen T, Collins S, Kimber W, Matarese G, Keogh JM, Lank E, Bottomley B, Lopez-Fernandez J, Ferraz-Amaro I, Dattani MT, Ercan O, Myhre AG, Retterstol L, Stanhope R, Edge JA, McKenzie S, Lessan N, Ghodsi M, De Rosa V, Perna F, Fontana S, Barrosos I, Undlien DE, O’Rahilly S. Clinical and molecular genetic spectrum of congenital deficiency of the leptin receptor. N Engl J Med 356:237-247, 2007.

94. Cheung CC, Clifton DK, Steiner RA. Proopiomelanocortin neurons are direct targets for leptin in the hypothalamus. Endocrinology 138:4489-4492, 1997.

95. Marks JL, Porte D Jr, Stahl WL, Baskin DG. Localization of insulin receptor mRNA in rat brain by in situ hybridization. Endocrinology 127:3234-3236, 1990.

96. Pardini AW, Nguyen HT, Figlewicz DP, Baskin DG, Williams DL, Kim F, Schwartz MW. Distribution of insulin receptor substrate-2 in brain areas involved in energy homeostasis. Brain Res 1112:169-178, 2006.

97. Stellar E. The physiology of motivation. Psychol Rev 61:5-22, 1954.

98. Stanley BG, Leibowitz SF. Neuropeptide Y: stimulation of feeding and drinking by injection into the paraventricular nucleus. Life Sci 35:2635-2642, 1984.

99. Rossi M, Kim MS, Morgan DG, Small CJ, Edwards CM, Sunter D, Abusnana S, Goldstone AP, Russell SH, Stanely SA, Smith DM, Yagaloff K, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. A C-terminal fragment of Agouti-related protein increases feeding and antagonizes the effect of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone in vivo. Endocrinology 139:4428-4431, 1998.

100. Ollmann M, Wilson B, Yang Y, Kerns J, Chen Y, Gantz I, Barsh G. Antagonism of central melanocortin receptors in vitro and in vivo by agouti-related protein. Science 278:135-138, 1997.

101. McMinn JE, Wilkinson CW, Havel PJ, Woods SC, Schwartz MW. Effect of intracerebroventricular alpha-MSH on food intake, adiposity, c-Fos induction, and neuropeptide expression. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 279:R695-R703, 2000.

102. Lambert PD, Couceyro PR, McGirr KM, Dall Vechia SE, Smith Y, Kuhar MJ. CART peptides in the central control of feeding and interactions with neuropeptide Y. Synapse 29:293-298, 1998.

103. Hahn TM, Breininger JF, Baskin DG, Schwartz MW. Coexpression of Agrp and NPY in fasting-activated hypothalamic neurons. Nat Neurosci 1:271-272, 1998.

104. Brady LS, Smith MA, Gold PW, Herkenham M. Altered expression of hypothalamic neuropeptide mRNAs in food-restricted and food-deprived rats. Neuroendocrinology 52:441-447, 1990.

105. Kim EM, Welch CC, Grace MK, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Chronic food restriction and acute food deprivation decrease mRNA levels of opioid peptides in arcuate nucleus. Am J Physiol 270:R1019-R1024, 1996.

106. Li HY, Hwang HW, Hu YH. Functional characterization of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript mRNA expression in rat hypothalamus. Neurosci Lett 323:203-206, 2002.

107. Miltenberger RJ, Mynatt RL, Wilkinson JE, Woychik RP. The role of the agouti gene in the yellow obese syndrome. J Nutr 127:1902S-1907S, 1997.

108. Graham M, Shutter JR, Sarmiento U, Sarosi I, Stark KL. Overexpression of Agrt leads to obesity in transgenic mice. Nat Genet 17:273-274, 1997.

109. Huszar D, Lynch C, Fairchild-Huntress V, Dunmore J, Fang Q, Berkemeier L, Gu W, Kesterson R, Boston B, Cone R, Smith F, Campfield L, Burn P, Lee F. Targeted disruption of the melanocortin-4 receptor results in obesity in mice. Cell 88:131-141, 1997.

110. Yaswen L, Diehl N, Brennan MB, Hochgeschwender U. Obesity in the mouse model of proopiomelanocortin deficiency responds to peripheral melanocortin. Nat Med 5:1066-1070, 1999.

111. Wierup N, Richards WG, Bannon AW, Kuhar MJ, Ahren B, Sundler F. CART knock out mice have impaired insulin secretion and glucose intolerance, altered beta cell morphology and increased body weight. Regul Pept 129:203-211, 2005.

112. Palmiter RD, Erickson JC, Hollopeter G, Baraban SC, Schwarz MW. Life without neuropeptide Y. Recent Prog Horm Res 53:163-199, 1998.

113. Qian S, Chen H, Weingarth D, Trumbauer ME, Novi DE, Guan X, Yu H, Shen Z, Feng Y, Frazier E, Chen A, Camacho RE, Shearman LP, Gopal-Truter S, MacNeil DJ, Van der Ploeg LH, Marsh DJ. Neither agouti-related protein nor neuropeptide Y is critically required for the regulation of energy homeostasis in mice. Mol Cell Biol 22:5027-5035, 2002.

114. Gropp E, Shanabrough M, Borok E, Xu AW, Janoschek R, Buch T, Plum L, Balthasar N, Hampel B, Waisman A, Barsh GS, Horvath TL, Bruning JC. Agouti-related peptide-expressing neurons are mandatory for feeding. Nat Neurosci 8:1289-1291, 2005.

115. Luguet S, Perez FA, Hnasko TS, Palmiter RD. NPY/AgRP neurons are essential for feeding in adult mice but can be ablated in neonates. Science 310:683-685, 2005.

116. Farooqi IS, O’Rahilly S. Genetics of obesity in humans. Endocr Rev 27:710-718, 2006.

117. Banks WA, Kastin AJ, Huang W, Jaspan JB, Maness LM. Leptin enters the brain by a saturable system independent of insulin. Peptides 17:305-311, 1996.

118. Banks WA, Jaspan JB, Huang W, Kastin AJ. Transport of insulin across the blood-brain barrier: saturability at euglycemic doses of insulin. Peptides 18:1423-1429, 1997.

119. Benoit SC, Air EL, Coolen LM, Strauss R, Jackman A, Clegg DJ, Seeley RJ, Woods SC. The catabolic action of insulin in the brain is mediated by melanocortins. J Neurosci 22: 9048-9052, 2002.

120. Schwartz MW, Seeley RJ, Weigle DS, Burn P, Campfield LA, Baskin DG. Leptin increases hypothalamic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA expression in the rostral arcuate nucleus. Diabetes 46:2119-2123, 1997.

121. Cowley MA, Smart JL, Rubenstein M, Cerdan MG, Diano S, Horvath TL, Cone RD, Low MJ. Leptin activates anorexigenic POMC neurons through a neural network in the arcuate nucleus. Nature 411:480-484, 2001.

122. Seeley RJ, Yagaloff K, Fisher S, Burn P, Thiele T, van Dijk G, Baskin DG, Schwartz MW. Melanocortin receptors in leptin effects. Nature 390:349, 1997.

123. Heinrichs SC, Menzaghi F, Pich EM, Hauger RL, Koob GF. Corticotropin-releasing factor in the paraventricular nucleus modulates feeding induced by neuropeptide Y. Brain Res 611:18-24, 1993.

124. Uehara Y, Shimizu H, Ohtani K, Sato N, Mori M. Hypothalamic corticotrophin-releasing hormone is a mediator of the anorexigenic effects of leptin. Diabetes 47:890-893, 1998.

125. Mihaly E, Fekete C, Tatro JB, Liposits Z, Stopa EG, Lechan RM. Hypophysiotropic thyrotropin-releasing hormone-synthesizing neurons in human hypothalamus are innervated by neuropeptide Y, agouti-related protein, and alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:2596-2603, 2000.

126. Vijayan E, McCann SM. Suppression of feeding and drinking activity in rats following intraventricular injection of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH). Endocrinology 100:1727-1730, 1977.

127. Olson BR, Drutarosky MD, Chow MS, Hruby VJ, Stricker EM, Verbalis JG. Oxytocin and an oxytocin agonist administered centrally decrease food intake in rats. Peptides 12:113-118, 1991.

128. Arletti R, Benelli A, Bertolini A. Influence of oxytocin on feeding behavior in the rat. Peptides 10:89-93, 1989.

129. Qu D, Ludwig DS, Gammeltoft S, Piper M, Pelleymounter MA, Cullen MJ, Mathes WF, Przypek R, Kanarek R, Maratos-Flier JS. A role for melanin-concentrating hormone in the central regulation of feeding behavior. Nature 380:243-247, 1996.

130. de Lecea L, Kilduff TS, Peyton C, Gao X, Foye PE, Danielson PE, Fukuhara C, Battenberg EL, Gautvik VT, Bartlett FS 2nd, Frankel WN, van den Pol AN, Bloom FE, Gautvik KM, Sutcliffe JG. The hypocretins: hypothalamus-specific peptides with neuroexcitatory activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:322-327, 1998.

131. Broberger C, de Lecea L, Sutcliffe JG, Hokfelt T. Hypocretin/orexin- and melanin-concentrating hormone-expresing cells form distinct populations in the rodent lateral hypothalamus: relationship to the neuropeptide Y and agouti gene-related protein synthesis. J Comp Neurol 402:460-474, 1998.

132. Sakurai T, Amemiya A, Ishii M, Matsuzaki I, Chemelli RM, Tanaka H, Williams SC, Richardson JA, Kozlowski GP, Wilson S, Arch JR, Buckingham RE, Haynes AC, Carr SA, Annan RS, McNulty DE, Liu WS, Terrett JA, Elshourbagy NA, Bergsma DJ, Yanagisawa M. Orexin and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior. Cell 92:572-585, 1998.

133. Nakazato M, Murakami N, Date Y, Kojima M, Matsuo H, Kanagawa K, Matsukura S. A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 409:194-198, 2001.

134. Seoane LM, Lopez M, Tovar S, Casanueva FF, Senaris R, Dieguez C. Agouti-related peptide, neuropeptide Y, and somatostatin-producing neurons are targets for ghrelin actions in the rat hypothalamus. Endocrinology 144:544-551, 2003.

135. Mondal MS, Date Y, Yamaguchi H, Toshinai K, Tsuruta T, Kangawa K, Nakazato M. Identification of ghrelin and its receptor in neurons of the rat arcuate nucleus. Regul Pept 126:55-59, 2005.

136. Hewson AK, Dickson SL. Systemic administration of ghrelin induces Fos and Egr-1 proteins in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus of fasted and fed rats. J Endocrinol 12:1047-1049, 2000.

137. Chen HY, Trumbauer ME, Chen AS, Weingarth DT, Adams JR, Frazier EG, Shen Z, Marsh DJ, Feighner SD, Guan XM, Ye Z, Nargund RP, Smith RG, Van der Ploeg LH, Howard AD, MacNeil DJ, Qian S. Orexigenic action of peripheral ghrelin is mediated by neuropeptide Y and agout-related protein. Endocrinology 144:2607-2612, 2004.

138. Oh-I S, Shimizu H, Satoh T, Okada S, Adachi S, Inoue K, Eguchi H, Yamamoto M, Imake T, Hashimoto K, Tsuchiya T, Monden T, Horiguchi K, Yamada M, Mori M. Identification of nesfatin-1 as a satiety molecule in the hypothalamus. Nature 443:709-712, 2006.

139. Schwartz GJ. The role of gastrointestinal vagal afferents in the control of food intake: current prospects. Nutrition 16:866-873, 2000.

140. Grill HJ, Smith GP. Cholecystokinin decreases sucrose intake in chronic decerebrate rats. Am J Physiol 254:R853-R856, 1988.

141. Seeley RJ, Grill HJ, Kaplan JM. Neurological dissociation of gastrointestinal and metabolic contributions to meal size control. Behav Neurosci 108:347-352, 1994.

142. Berthoud HR. Multiple neural systems controlling food intake and body weight. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26:393-428, 2002.

143. Schwartz GJ. Integrative capacity of the caudal brainstem in the control of food intake. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1275-1280, 2006.

144. Grill HJ. Distributed neural control of energy balance: contributions from hindbrain and hypothalamus. Obesity 14:216S-221S, 2006.

145. Grill HJ, Schwartz MW, Kaplan JM, Foxhall JS, Breininger J, Baskin DG. Evidence that the caudal brainstem is a target for the inhibitory effect of leptin on food intake. Endocrinology 143:239-246, 2002.

146. Jacobowitz DM, O’Donohue TL. Alpha-Melanocyte stimulating hormone: immunohistochemical identification and mapping in neurons of rat brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75:6300-6304, 1978.

147. Palkovits M, Mezey E, Eskay RL. Pro-opiomelanocortin-derived peptides (ACTH/beta-endorphin/alpha-MSH) in brainstem baroreceptor areas of the rat. Brain Res 436:323-338, 1987.

148. Mountjoy KG, Mortrud MT, Low MJ, Simerly RB, Cone RD. Localization of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4-R) in neuroendocrine and autonomic control circuits in the brain. Mol Endocrinol 8:503-508, 1994.

149. Kishi T, Aschkenasi CJ, Choi BJ, Lopez ME, Lee CE, Liu H, Hollenberg AN, Friedman JM, Elmquist JK. Neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor mRNA in rodent brain: distribution and colocalization with melanocortin-4 receptor. J Comp Neurol 482:217-243, 2005.

150. Kishi T, Aschkenasi CJ, Lee CE, Mountjoy KG, Saper CB, Elmquist JK. Expression of melanocortin 4 receptor mRNA in the central nervous system of the rat. J Comp Neurol 457:213-235, 2003.

151. Grill HJ, Ginsberg AB, Seeley RJ, Kaplan JM. Brainstem application of melanocortin receptor ligands produces long-lasting effects on feeding and body weight. J Neurosci 18:10128-10135, 1998.

152. Taylor K, Lester E, Hudson B, Ritter S. Hypothalamic and hindbrain NPY, AGRP and NE increase consummatory feeding responses. Physiol Behav 90:744-750, 2007.

153. Corp ES, Melville LD, Greenberg D, Gibbs J, Smith GP. Effect of fourth ventricular neuropeptide Y and peptide YY on ingestive and other behaviors. Am J Physiol 259:R317-R323, 1990.

154. Corp ES, McQuade J, Krasnicki S, Conze DB. Feeding after fourth ventricular administration of neuropeptide Y receptor agonists in rats. Peptides 22:493-499, 2001.

155. Moran TH, Aja S, Ladenheim EE. Leptin modulation of peripheral controls of meal size. Physiol Behav 89:511-516, 2006.

156. Schwartz GJ, Moran TH. Leptin and neuropeptide Y have opposing modulatory effects on nucleus of the solitary tract neurophysiological responses to gastric loads: implications for the control of food intake. Endocrinology 143:3779-3784, 2002.

157. Huo L, Maeng L, Bjorbaek C, Grill HJ. Leptin and the control of food intake: neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract are activated by both gastric distension and leptin. Endocrinology 148:2189-2197, 2007.

158. Emond M, Ladenheim EE, Schwartz GJ, Moran TH. Leptin amplifies the feeding inhibition and neural activation arising from a gastric nutrient preload. Physiol Behav 72:123-128, 2001.

159. Emond M, Schwartz GJ, Ladenheim EE, Moran TH. Central leptin modulates behavioral and neural responsivity to CCK. Am J Physiol 276:R1545-R1549, 1999.

160. Fry M, Ferguson AV. The sensory circumventricular organs: brain targets for circulating signals controlling ingestive behavior. Physiol Behav 91:413-423, 2007.

161. Asin KE, Gore PA Jr, Bednarz L, Holladay M, Nadzan AM. Effects of selective CCK receptor agonists on food intake after central or peripheral administration in rats. Brain Res 571:169-174, 1992.

162. Ebenezer IS. Effects of intracerebroventricular administration of the CCK(1) receptor antagonist devazepide on food intake in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 441:79-82, 2002.

163. Corp ES, Curcio M, Gibbs J, Smith GP. The effect of centrally administered CCK-receptor antagonists on food intake in rats. Physiol Behav 61:823-827, 1997.

164. Brenner LA, Ritter RC. Intracerebroventricular cholecystokinin A-receptor antagonist does not reduce satiation by endogenous CCK. Physiol Behav 63:711-716, 1998.

165. Lindefors N, Linden A, Brene S, Sedvall G, Persson H. CCK peptides and mRNA in the human brain. Prog Neurobiol 40:671-690, 1993.

166. Crawley JN, Corwin RL. Biological actions of cholecystokinin. Peptides 15:731-755, 1994.

167. Moran TH, Schwartz GJ. Neurobiology of cholecystokinin. Crit Rev Neurobiol 9:1-28, 1994.

168. Challis BG, Pinnock SB, Coll AP, Carter RN, Dickson SL, O’Rahilly S. Acute effects of PYY3-36 on food intake and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression in the mouse. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 311:915-919, 2003.

169. Stanley BG, Daniel DR, Chin AS, Leibowitz SF. Paraventricular nucleus injections of peptide YY and neuropeptide Y preferentially enhance carbohydrate ingestion. Peptides 6:1205-1211, 1985.

170. Morley JE, Levine AS, Grace M, Kneip J. Peptide YY (PYY), a potent orexigenic agent. Brain Res 341:200-203, 1985.

171. Uttenthal LO, Toledano A, Blazquez E. Audioradiographic localization of receptors for glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide in rat brain. Neuropeptides 21:143-146, 1992.

172. Turton MD, O’Shea D, Gunn I, Beak SA, Edwards CM, Meeran K, Choi SJ, Taylor GM, Heath MM, Lambert PD, Wilding JP, Smith DM, Ghatei MA, Herbert J, Bloom SR. A role for glucagon-like peptide-1 in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 379:68-72, 1996.

173. Asarian L, Geary N. Modulation of appetite by gonadal steroid hormones. Philos Tran R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1251-1263, 2006.

174. Halford JC, Harrold JA, Boyland EJ, Lawton CL, Blundell JE. Serotonergic drugs: effects on appetite expression and use for the treatment of obesity. Drugs 67:27-55, 2007.

175. Terry P, Gilbert DB, Cooper SJ. Dopamine receptor subtype agonists and feeding behavior. Obes Res 3:515S-523S, 1995.

176. McQuade JA, Benoit SC, Woods SC, Seeley RJ. 7-OH-DPAT selectively reduces intake of both chow and high fat diets in different food intake regimens. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 76:517-523, 2003.

177. Baldo BA, Kelley AE. Discrete neurochemical coding of distinguishable motivational processes: insights from nucleus accumbens control of feeding. Psychopharmacology 191:439-459, 2007.

178. Wise RA. Role of brain dopamine in food reward and reinforcement. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1149-1158, 2006.

179. Barbano MF, Cador M. Opioids for hedonic experience and dopamine to get ready for it. Psychopharmacology 191:497-506, 2007.

180. Levine AS, Billington CJ. Opioids as agents of reward-related feeding: a consideration of the evidence. Physiol Behav 82:57-61, 2004.

181. DiMarzo V, Matias I. Endocannabinoid control of food intake and energy balance. Nat Neurosci 8:585-589, 2005.

182. Cota D, Marsicano G, Lutz B, Vicennati V, Stalla GK, Pasquali R, Pagotto U. Endogenous cannabinoid system as a modulator of food intake. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27:289-301, 2003.

183. Patel PN, Pathak R. Rimonabant: a novel selective cannabinoid-1 receptor antagonist for treatment of obesity. Am J Health Syst Pharm 64:481-489, 2007.

184. Cota D, Tschop MH, Horvath TL, Levine AS. Cannabinoids, opioids and eating behavior: the molecular face of hedonism? Brain Res Rev 51:85-107, 2006.

185. Levitsky DA. Feeding patterns of rats in response to fasts and changes in environmental conditions. Physiol Behav 5:291-300, 1970.

186. Tagliaferro AR, Levitsky DA. Overcompensation of food intake following brief periods of food restriction. Physiol Behav 29:747-750, 1982.

187. Farley C, Cook JA, Spar BD, Austin TM, Kowalski TJ. Meal pattern analysis of diet-induced obesity in susceptible and resistant rats. Obes Res 11:845-851, 2003.

188. Howarth NC, Huang TT, Roberts SB, Lin BH, McCrory MA. Eating patterns and dietary composition in relation to BMI in younger and older adults. Int J Obes 31:675-684, 2007.

189. Pearcey SM, de Castro JM. Food intake and meal patterns of weight-stable and weight-gaining persons. Am J Clin Nutr 76:107-112, 2002.

190. Woods SC, Seeley RJ. Understanding the physiology of obesity: review of recent developments in obesity research. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26:S8-S10, 2002.

191. Stein LJ, Woods SC. Gastrin releasing peptide reduces meal size in rats. Peptides 3:833-835, 1982.

192. Scott KA, Moran TH. The GLP-1 agonist exendin-4 reduces food intake in nonhuman primates through changes in meal size. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 293:R983-R987, 2007.

193. Flynn MC, Plata-Salaman CR. Leptin (OB protein) and meal size. Nutrition 15:508-509, 1999.

194. Kahler A, Geary N, Eckel LA, Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Langhans W. Chronic administration of OB protein decreases food intake by selectively reducing meal size in male rats. Am J Physiol 275:R180-R185, 1998.

195. Eckel LA, Langhans W, Kahler A, Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Geary N. Chronic administration of OB protein decreases food intake by selectively reducing meal size in female rats. Am J Physiol 275:R186-R193, 1998.

196. Azzara AV, Sokolnicki JP, Schwartz GJ. Central melanocortin receptor agonist reduces spontaneous and scheduled meal size but does not augment duodenal preload-induced feeding inhibition. Physiol Behav 77:411-416, 2002.

197. Williams DL, Grill HJ, Weiss SM, Baird JP, Kaplan JM. Behavioral processes underlying the intake suppressive effects of melanocortin 3/4 receptor activation in the rat. Psychopharmacology 161:47-53, 2002.

198. Aja S, Schwartz GJ, Kuhar MJ, Moran TH. Intracerebroventricular CART peptide reduces rat ingestive behavior and alters licking microstructure. Am J Physiol Regul Comp Integr Comp Physiol 280:R1613-R1619, 2001.

199. Baird JP, Gray NE, Fischer SG. Effects of neuropeptide Y on feeding microstructure: dissociation of appetitive and consummatory actions. Behav Neurosci 120:937-951, 2006.

200. Brown CM, Fletcher PJ, Coscina DV. Neuropeptide Y-induced operant responding for sucrose is not mediated by dopamine. Peptides 19:1667-1673, 1998.

201. Altizer AM, Davidson TL. The effects of NPY and 5-TG on responding to cues for fats and carbohydrates. Physiol Behav 65:685-690, 1999.

202. Hagan MM, Rushing PA, Benoit SC, Woods SC, Seeley RJ. Opioid receptor involvement in the effect of AgRP- (83-132) on food intake and food selection. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 280:R814-R821, 2001.

203. Tracy AL, Clegg DJ, Johnson JD, Davidson TL, Benoit SC. Effects of AgRP (83-132) on appetitive responding for fat and carbohydrate. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, under review.

204. Wetzler S, Dumaz V, Goubern M, Tome D, Larue-Achagiotis C. Intraperitoneal leptin modifies macronutrient choice in self-selecting rats. Physiol Behav 83:65-72, 2004.

205. Giraudo SQ, Grace MK, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Differential effects of neuropeptide Y and the mu-agonist DAMGO on ‘palatability’ vs. ‘energy’. Brain Res 834:160-163, 1999.

206. Kelley AE, Baldo BA, Pratt WE, Will MJ. Corticostriatal-hypothalamic circuitry and food motivation: integration of energy, action and reward. Physiol Behav 86:773-795, 2005.

207. Naleid AM, Grace MK, Cummings DE, Levine AS. Ghrelin induces feeding in the mesolimbic reward pathway between the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens. Peptides 26:2274-2279, 2005.

208. Figlewicz DP, Naleid AM, Sipols AJ. Modulation of food reward by adiposity signals. Physiol Behav 91:473-478, 2007.

209. Davidson TL. Learning about deprivation intensity stimuli. Behav Neurosci 101:198-208, 1987.

210. Davidson TL, Flynn FW, Jarrard LE. Potency of food deprivation intensity cues as discriminative stimuli. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 18:174-181, 1992.

211. Davidson TL, Kanoski SE, Tracy AL, Walls EK, Clegg D, Benoit SC. The interoceptive cue properties of ghrelin generalize to food deprivation. Peptides 26:1602-1610, 2005.

212. Davidson TL, Carretta JC. Cholecystokinin, but not bombesin, has interoceptive sensory consequences like 1-h food deprivation. Physiol Behave 53:737-745, 1993.

213. Kanoski SE, Walls EK, Davidson TL. Interoceptive “satiety” signals produced by leptin and CCK. Peptides 28:988-1002, 2007.

214. Seeley RJ, Benoit SC, Davidson TL. Discriminative cues produced by NPY do not generalize to the interoceptive cues produced by food deprivation. Physiol Behav 58:1237-1241, 1995.

215. Jewett DC, Schaal DW, Cleary J, Thompson T, Levine AS. The discriminative stimulus effects of neuropeptide Y. Brain Res 561:165-168, 1991.

216. Benoit SC, Tracy AL, Air EL, Kinzig K, Seeley RJ, Davidson TL. The role of the hypothalamic melanocortin system in behavioral appetitive processes. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 69:603-609, 2001.

217. Mattes R. Hunger ratings are not a valid proxy measure of reported food intake in humans. Appetite 15:103-113, 1990.

218. Stubbs RJ, Hughes DA, Johnstone AM, Rowley E, Reid C, Elia M, Stratton R, Delargy H, King N, Blundell JE. The use of visual analogue scales to assess motivation to eat in human subjects: a review of their reliability and validity with an evaluation of new hand-held computerized systems for temporal tracking of appetite ratings. Br J Nutr 84:405-415, 2000.

219. Oesch S, Ruegg C, Fischer B, Degen L, Beglinger C. Effect of gastric distension prior to eating on food intake and feelings of satiety in humans. Physiol Behav 87:903-910, 2006.

220. Brennan IM, Feltrin KL, Horowitz M, Smout AJ, Meyer JH, Wishart J, Feinle-Bisset C. Evaluation of interactions between CCK and GLP-1 in their effects on appetite, energy intake, and antropyloroduodenal motility in healthy men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 288:R1477-R1485, 2005.

221. Lieverse RJ, Jansen JB, Masclee AM, Lamers CB. Satiety effects of cholecystokinin in humans. Gastroenterology 106:1451-1454, 1994.

222. Gutzwiller JP, Goke B, Drewe J, Hildebrand P, Ketterer S, Handschin D, Winterhalder R, Conen D, Beglinger C. Glucagon-like peptide-1: a potent regulator of food intake in humans. Gut 44:81-86, 1999.

223. Degen L, Oesch S, Casanova M, Graf S, Ketterer S, Drewe J, Beglinger C. Effect of peptide YY3-36 on food intake in humans. Gastroenterology 129:1430-1436, 2006.

224. Batterham RL, Bloom SR. The gut hormone peptide YY regulates appetite. Ann NY Acad Sci 994:162-168, 2003.

225. Beglinger C, Degen L, Matzinger D, D’Amato M, Drewe J. Loxiglumide, a CCK-A receptor antagonist, stimulates calorie intake and hunger feelings in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 280:R1149-R1154, 2001.

226. Polonsky KS. Dynamics of insulin secretion in obesity and diabetes. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24:S29-S31, 2000.

227. Woods SC, D’Alessio DA, Tso P, Rushing PA, Clegg DJ, Benoit SC, Gotoh K, Liu M, Seeley RJ. Consumption of a high-fat diet alters the homeostatic regulation of energy balance. Physiol Behav 83:573-578, 2004.

228. Maffei M, Halaas J, Ravussin E, Pratley RE, Lee GH, Zhang Y, Fei H, Kim S, Lallone R, Ranganathan S, Kern PA, Friedman JM. Leptin levels in human and rodent: measurement of plasma leptin and ob mRNA in obese and weight-reduced subjects. Nat Med 1:1155-1161, 1995.

229. Tschop M, Weyer C, Tataranni PA, Devanarayan V, Ravussin E, Heiman ML. Circulating ghrelin levels are decreased in human obesity. Diabetes 50:707-709, 2001.

230. Perreault M, Istrate N, Wang L, Nichols AJ, Tozzo E, Stricker-Krongrad A. Resistance to the orexigenic effect of ghrelin in dietary-induced obesity in mice: reversal upon weight loss. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28:879-885, 2004.

231. Beck B, Max JP, Fernette B, Richy S. Adaptation of ghrelin levels to limit body weight gain in the obese Zucker rat. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 318:846-851, 2004.

232. Williams DL, Grill HJ, Cummings DE, Kaplan JM. Overfeeding-induced weight gain suppresses plasma ghrelin levels in rats. J Endocrinol Invest 29:863-868, 2006.

233. Wang H, Storlien LH, Huang XF. Effects of dietary fat types on body fatness, leptin, and ARC leptin receptor, NPY, and AgRP mRNA expression. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282:E1352-E1359, 2002.

234. Lin S, Storlien LH, Huang XF. Leptin receptor, NPY, POMC mRNA expression in the diet-induced obese mouse brain. Brain Res 875:89-95, 2000.

235. Nam SY, Kratzsch J, Kim KW, Kim KR, Lim SK, Marcus C. Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma concentrations of leptin, NPY, and alpha-MSH in obese women and their relationship to negative energy balance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4849-4853, 2001.

236. Widdowson PS, Upton R, Buckingham R, Arch J, Williams G. Inhibition of food response to intracerebroventricular injection of leptin is attenuated in rats with diet-induced obesity. Diabetes 46:1782-1785, 1997.

237. Halaas JL, Boozer C, Blair-West J, Fidahusein N, Denton DA, Friedman JM. Physiological responses to long-term peripheral and central leptin infusion in lean and obese mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:8878-8883, 1997.

238. Levin BE, Dunn-Meynell AA. Reduced central leptin sensitivity in rats with diet-induced obesity. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 283:R941-R948, 2002.

239. Heymsfield SB, Greenberg AS, Fujioka K, Dixon RM, Kushner R, Hunt T, Lubina JA, Patane J, Self B, Hunt P, McCamish M. Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: a randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. JAMA 282:1568-1575, 2000.

240. Zelissen PM, Stenlof K, Lean ME, Fogteloo J, Keulen ET, Wilding J, Finer N, Rossner S, Lawrence E, Fletcher C, McCamish M. Effect of three treatment schedules of recombinant methionyl human leptin on body weight in obese adults: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Diabetes Obes Metab 7:755-761, 2005.

241. Clegg DJ, Benoit SC, Reed JA, Woods SC, Dunn-Meynell A, Levin BE. Reduced anorexic effects of insulin in obesity-prone rats fed a moderate-fat diet. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 288:R981-R986, 2004.

242. Banks WA, DiPalma CR, Farrell CL. Impaired transport of leptin across the blood-brain barrier in obesity. Peptides 20:1341-1345, 1999.

243. Banks WA, Coon AB, Robinson SM, Moinuddin A, Shultz JM, Nakaoke R, Morley JE. Triglycerides induce leptin resistance at the blood-brain barrier. Diabetes 53:1253-1260, 2004.

244. Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Etiology of insulin resistance. Am J Med 119:S10-S16, 2006.

245. Munzberg H, Myers MG Jr. Molecular and anatomical determinants of central leptin resistance. Nat Neurosci 8:566-570, 2005.

246. Enriori PJ, Evans AE, Sinnayah P, Jobst EE, Tonelli-Lomos L, Billes SK, Glavas MM, Grayson BE, Perello M, Nillni EA, Grove KL, Cowley MA. Diet-induced obesity causes severe but reversible leptin resistance in arcuate melanocortin neurons. Cell Metab 5:181-194, 2007.

247. Enriori PJ, Evans AE, Sinnayah P, Cowley MA. Leptin resistance and obesity. Obesity 14:254S-258S, 2006.

248. Sahu A. Resistance to the satiety action of leptin following chronic central leptin infusion is associated with the development of leptin resistance in neuropeptide Y neurons. J Neuroendocrinol 14:796-804, 2002.

249. Pfluger PT, Kampe J, Castaneda TR, Vahl T, D’Alessio DA, Kruthaupt T, Benoit SC, Cuntz U, Rochlitz HJ, Moehlig M, Pfeiffer AF, Koebnick C, Weickert MO, Otto B, Spranger J, Tschop MH. Effect of human body weight changes on circulating levels of peptide YY and peptide Y3-36. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:583-588, 2007.

250. le Roux CW, Batterham RL, Aylwin SJ, Patterson M, Borg CM, Wynne KJ, Kent A, Vincent RP, Gardiner J, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. Attenuated peptide YY release in obese subjects is associated with reduced satiety. Endocrinology 147:3-8, 2006.

251. Wisen O, Bjorvell H, Cantor P, Johansson C, Theodorsson E. Plasma concentrations of regulatory peptides in obesity following modified sham feeding (MSF) and a liquid test meal. Regul Pept 39:43-54, 1992.

252. Tso P, Liu M. Apolipoprotein A-IV, food intake, and obesity. Physiol Behav 83:631-643, 2004.

253. Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Logan J, Pappas NR, Wong CT, Zhu W, Netusil N, Fowler JS. Brain dopamine and obesity. Lancet 357:354-357, 2001.

254. Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Fowler JS. The role of dopamine in motivation for food in humans: implications for obesity. Expert Opin Ther Targets 6:601-609, 2002.

255. Scarpace PJ, Zhang Y. Elevated leptin: consequence or cause of obesity? Front Biosci 12:3531-3544, 2007.


256. Levin BE, Dunn-Meynell AA, Balkan B, Keesey RE. Selective breeding for diet-induced obesity and resistance in Sprague-Dawley rats. Am J Physiol 273:R725-R730, 1997.

257. Irani BG, Dunn-Meynell AA, Levin BE. Altered hypothalamic leptin, insulin, and melanocortin binding associated with moderate-fat diet and predisposition to obesity. Endocrinology 148:310-316, 2007.

258. Levin BE, Dunn-Meynell AA. Dysregulation of arcuate nucleus preproneuropeptide Y mRNA in diet-induced obese rats. Am J Physiol 272:R1365-1370, 1997.

259. Levin BE. Arcuate NPY neurons and energy homeostasis in diet-induced obese and resistant rats. Am J Physiol 276:R382-R387, 1999.

260. Levin BE, Dunn-Meynell AA, Banks WA. Obesity-prone rats have normal blood-brain barrier transport but defective central leptin signaling before obesity onset. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 286:R143-R150, 2004.

261. Levin BE, Magnan C, Migrenne S, Chua SC Jr, Dunn-Meynell AA. F-DIO obesity-prone rat is insulin resistant before obesity onset. Am J Physio Regul Integr Comp Physiol 289:R704-R711, 2005.